Classical Chinese Texts

There were “a hundred schools of thought” in ancient China during the “Warring States period” when Daoism and Confucianism were born. So I have chosen to focus on only those two most important schools and only one each of their respective texts. These texts are the Dao De Jing of Lao Tzu and The Analects of Confucius.

While researching this topic I was fascinated to discover that much of the enigmatic nature of ancient Chinese thought results directly from the classical Chinese language. It is only a written language, since there are so many homonyms in the pronunciation of the pictograms that it would be impossible to tell which pictogram exactly was being referred to from speech alone.

It is also an extremely contextual language, in that the interpretation of each pictogram depends on the relationship with other pictograms in the text.

For example 文 Wen means “to inscribe,” “to embellish.” TIan (天 ) is the world, the universe. The combination 天文 tianwen is “pattern of the heavens”.

Some other, modern Chinese, combinations would be:

• 文 wen “inscribe” 字 zi “character” => “ writing”
• 文 wen “inscribe” 学 “learning” => “literature”
• 文 wen “inscribe” 明 ming “illumination” => “civilization”
• 文 wen “inscribe” 化 hua “transform” => “culture”.

But in a classical text, 文 wen alone might be written for all these things. It was a matter of interpretation to decide if “culture” were the most appropriate or enlightening way in which to read the meaning within the wider context. This could of course mean that a single text could support many different interpretations and it might involve some considerable thought and appeal to personal experience to understand the intention, or intentions, behind the text.

So be comforted, if the following seems difficult to follow, that for millennia it seems likely that all educated Chinese, who read these texts as a matter of course, encountered some kind of similar task.

Daoism

Although the primary text of Daoism, the Dao De Jing, has been dated to after the period in which Confucius lived, tradition has claimed that Daoism predates Confucianism. It is said that Lao Tzu met a young Confucius and was unimpressed.

It seems to me that the reason for this is that Daoism had probably existed as an oral tradition for a long time prior to being written in any form and the Dao De Jing provides a good reason why this might be so in the very first lines:

Way-making (dao) that can be put into words is not really way-making
— Dao De Jing Chapter 1

Also, Confucius refers a lot to Dao in his Analects, if the Dao De Jing is later than Confucius perhaps it is simply trying to recover a facet of Dao that existed prior to, but was not captured in, his thought.

Concepts

天 tian

We mentioned Tian already and it roughly means the whole of the universe as a single living thing, including people. There is no “heaven”, Tian has no beginning or end, it is its own reason for existence and it has a logic that is both indefinable and everywhere visible.

心 xin

The symbol for xin was originally a picture of an aorta but there is no distinction between “heart” and “mind” in classical Chinese. Xin (or heart-mind) is a singular process of thinking and feeling. This means that there is not really a distinction between philosophy and religion and Daoism is both a spiritual and explanatory view of the world.

道 dao

The highest efficacy is like water.
It is because water benefits everything (wanwu 万物 )
Yet vies to dwell in places loathed by the crowd
That it comes nearest to proper way-making (dao).

here 万 wan “ten thousand” 物 wu “things” means “all the things”. Ten thousand is used to represent a number so big it might as well be everything.

The pictogram of the dao, 道, is of someone following a path. However,

Way-making (dao) is an easy-flowing stream
Which can run in any direction.
With all things accomplished and work complete,
It does not assume any proprietary claim.

so the path does not have a particular route and is not followed to gain a particular destination.

Human beings emulate the earth,
The earth emulates the heavens,
The heavens emulate way-making,
And way-making emulates what is spontaneously so (ziran 自然).

自 zi “nose” 然 ran “thus” translates to “of it's own accord” or “naturally”

So Daoism is finding one's way in the world by emulating the naturalness of the world which comes from spontaneity and responsiveness to change. There is not a sharp distinction between means and ends. Ends become available opportunistically as means are discovered.

I personally imagine a Daoist perhaps being able to observe so openly that they might simply notice how to place a single stone to divert a river to irrigate land that might then become fertile.

无为 wuwei

If Dao is not defined by a destination or end, how can we know when we are on it?

The answer is 无 “not” 为 “acting” or “unforced action” . Unforced action is acting in a way that does not impose our will but which is nevertheless effective.

The Dao De Jing was written as a guide for rulers (since ordinary people were illiterate) and it advises:

In not desiring, they would achieve equilibrium,
And all the world would be properly ordered of its own accord.

One can interpret Daoism as the belief that in human and worldly affairs, there is always a way to achieve everything that really needs to (and should) be achieved in a way that doesn't require coercion.

We can find that way by observing and working with the natural world, always aiming to take the least possible intervention. If we can't find that way then we are, by definition, doing something we should not.

The picture shows a Han Dynasty mural of an example given in the Chuang Tzu (another ancient Daoist text) of a butcher who, through long practice, becomes able to skin and bone an animal without cutting as he has understood so well the "gaps" between these parts of the animal.

The Dao De Jing also discusses how rulers may govern effectively without rules or commands by merely focusing on peoples' natural needs. In this way they people organise themselves and because the ruler has not had to create desires in them through punishments or rewards they do not become discontent.

Confucianism

Confucius was born in the kingdom of Lu during the "Spring and Autumn Period" when the 800 year Zhou Dynasty was beginning to collapse and give way to the following "Warring States period". His father died while he was a child, so that he lived a difficult life. However, he developed a love of learning and studied the traditional texts such as the Book of Documents and the Book of Songs from which he began to develop his own ideas.

The Master said, “Following the proper way, I do not forge new paths; with confidence I cherish the ancients—in these respects I am comparable to our venerable Old Peng.”
— Analects 7.1

Confucius sought to influence rulers to preserve the good practices of the Zhou Dynasty and to govern better and help achieve stability but he failed to gain influence. Despite travelling to other kingdoms to seek more sympathetic listeners, he eventually stopped trying and became a teacher.

Confucius was a rigourous but affectionate master who inspired enormous respect from his pupils. After his death, his pupils continued his teaching with their own pupil's and eventually they gathered his sayings into a number of books that were combined into what we call the Analects.

Concepts

There are themes that run through all the sayings of the analects especially that of Dao.

人道 Ren Dao

Ren 人 is the quality of being a worthy and accomplished person and Ren Dao is the way of becoming such a person.

Ren is a concept that appears often in the Analects despite hardly having appeared at all in previous classical texts like The book of documents. So it is thought that much of the meaning of Ren was originally developed by Confucius.

Zizhang asked Confucius about authoritative conduct (ren). Confucius replied, “A person who is able to carry into practice five attitudes in the world can be considered authoritative.” “What are these five attitudes?” asked Zizhang. Confucius replied, “Deference, tolerance, making good on one's word (xin) diligence, and generosity. If you are deferential, you will not suffer insult; if tolerant, you will win over the many; if you make good on your word, others will rely upon you; if diligent, you will get results; if generous, you will have the status to employ others effectively.”
— Analects 17.6

Ren includes an individuals reason, morality, comportment, manners and roles within a society. A person literally is their relationships with others and how those relationships are conducted. Ren is to conduct these well. Ren Dao is becoming Ren and also leading others to become Ren. It is partly an education of the whole person.

The Master said, “Zeng, my friend! My way (dao) is bound together with one continuous strand.” Master Zeng replied, “Indeed.” When the Master had left, the disciples asked, “What was he referring to?” Master Zeng said, “The way of the Master is doing one's utmost (zhong) and putting oneself in the other's place (shu), nothing more.”
— Analects 4.15

He taught that by governing oneself one can help to govern the world.

For if the wealth is equitably distributed, there is no poverty; if the people are harmonious, they are not few in number; if the people are secure, they are not unstable. Under these circumstances, if distant populations are still not won over, they persuade them to join them through the cultivation of their refinement (wen) and excellence (de), and once they have joined them, they make them feel secure.
—Analects 16.1

and that even though:

The Master said, “People who have chosen different ways (dao) cannot make plans together.”
— Analects 15.40

it is true that:

The Master said, “With one turn the state of Qi could become a Lu; with one turn the state of Lu could attain the way (dao).”
— Analects 6.24

禮 Li

The rendao is intimately bound up with li or the proper performing of rituals. But "ritual" here can mean anything that forms part of communal life that is not imposed by a ruler or law.

This includes: greeting people in the street, saying good morning to your family, the philosophy cafe, dancing, going to the market. It does also mean performing a sacrifice at an altar. (The ideogram, 禮, literally represents this)

More important than the rituals themselves, li is also the way they are performed. For instance it was said of Confucius that:

He would not sit unless the mats were properly placed in accord with custom. > — Analects 10.12

And li is also the spirit in which they are performed:

Ziyou said, “In mourning one does not go beyond the full expression of one's grief.”
— Analects 19.14

Consistent with the daoist notions of naturalness the dao reveals itself in ordinary life:

The Master said, “The first to come to observing ritual propriety (li) and to playing music (yue) were the simple folk; those who came later were the nobility (junzi) putting ritual and music to use, I would follow those who came to them first.”
— Analects 11.1

By performing these rituals correctly one becomes more familiar with the ways of the community and how to become an excellent person (ren) and how to influence people for the better.

The Master said, “To demand much from oneself personally, and not overmuch from others, will keep ill will at a distance.”
— Analects 15.15

But also showing character in the ritual of standing up to your boss, can both break with convention and nevertheless be done properly:

Zilu asked how to serve one's lord properly. The Master replied, “Let there be no duplicity when taking a stand against him.”
— Analects 14.22

In demonstrating the quality of commitment to the truth, one escapes the charge of insubordination.

In essence learning to perform the customary rituals of a society well, is an education in the rendao, in knowing how and what is for the best.

Legacy

It is perhaps a good example of the Daoist idea of wuwei that once he stopped trying to influence rulers and focused on teaching he ultimately had a great deal more influence, if not in his lifetime, then in later eras.

When the kingdom of Lu was conquered and a unified Chinese state was created, at first the dominant school of political thought was Legalism. This school believed that order could only be maintained through clear laws with strict punishment, where even small infractions are harshly punished in order to instill obedience to the law.

However, as time passed and dynasties changed, Confucius' thinking based on his interpretation of the ren became more and more influential. For millenia the Analects were studied by all educated Chinese and it remained part of the civil service examination until 1905.

Questions

While Daoism emphasises nature, Confucianism emphasises human communities but both talk about Dao. In your opinion, does this tell us anything?

If dao is like a mountain stream, do you think this can be reconciled with Confucius' concept of ren or do you think rendao uses dao in a different way?

China is the only country of its size that has remained recognisably the same political entity for millennia. Do you think the philosophy of ancient China influenced this?

Both Daoism and Confucianism see the small and the large scale as intimately related and following the same logic. Do you agree?

How might you apply the ideas of Daoism and/or Confucianism to your own life in the next few days?